Protestant Theology — Module 5
Sacraments
Sacramental theology — baptism and Lord's Supper. The great divider of Protestantism since Marburg (1529).
Sacramental Theology
A sacrament is a visible rite instituted by Christ joining an external sign and a divine promise. The Latin sacramentum translates the Greek μυστήριον (mystery) -- not a secret but a divine reality accomplished and revealed. Christian traditions diverge profoundly on the number, nature, and efficacy of the sacraments.
The Number of Sacraments
✠ Protestant
Two sacraments instituted by Christ himself: baptism (Mt 28:19) and the Lord's Supper (1 Cor 11:23-26). Criterion: explicit institution by Christ + attached promise of grace. The five other Catholic sacraments do not satisfy this double criterion.
✟ Catholic
Seven sacraments (Trent, Session VII, 1547; CCC 1113): baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, penance, anointing of the sick, holy orders, marriage. They confer grace ex opere operato -- through the sole fact of valid administration, independently of the minister's merit.
☦ Orthodox
Seven mysteries (μυστήρια) but without the rigidity of the Latin list. The Eucharist is the center of all ecclesial life. The list of seven was adopted in the 15th century under Catholic influence -- some Orthodox theologians are more flexible.
Baptism -- Major Divergences
| Question | Lutheran/Reformed | Anabaptist/Baptist |
|---|---|---|
| Subject of baptism | Infants (infant baptism) | Believers only (credobaptism) |
| Efficacy | Lutheran: confers regenerating grace. Reformed: sign of the covenant, efficacy linked to election. | Public witness of faith -- not regenerative in itself. |
| Mode | Sprinkling or immersion | Immersion required (Baptist) |
| Key text | Acts 16:15,33 (household baptisms); Col 2:11-12 | Mk 16:16 (believes AND is baptized); Acts 2:38 |
The Lord's Supper -- The Great Sacramental Schism
The Colloquy of Marburg (1529) showed that the Supper divides Protestantism as much as it divides Protestants and Catholics. Four major positions:
Real Presence (Luther)
Lutherans
The body and blood of Christ are truly present in and with the bread and wine (in, cum et sub). Not transubstantiation (the substance of bread remains), but a mysterious real presence. Founded on Lk 22:19 taken literally.
Spiritual Presence (Calvin)
Reformed
Christ is truly present at the Supper, but spiritually -- by the Holy Spirit who lifts hearts to the glorified Christ at the Father's right hand. Neither transubstantiation nor mere symbol. Sursum corda -- hearts upward.
Memorial Presence (Zwingli)
Anabaptists, some evangelicals
The Supper is a memorial of Christ's death -- a sign that recalls and proclaims, not an objective means of grace. Est = significat (signifies). 1 Cor 11:26: you proclaim the Lord's death.
Transubstantiation (Catholic)
Catholic, defined at Trent
The substance of bread and wine is converted into the substance of the body and blood of Christ (Trent, Session XIII, 1551; DH 1636-1661). The accidents (appearances) remain. The Mass is also a propitiatory sacrifice renewing the unique sacrifice of Calvary.
Calvin -- The Supper as a Real Communion Feast
Institutes IV.17.1-3 (1559) / CO 2, 1003-1006 / LCC 21, 1360-1364
🔍 Analysis
Calvin navigates between two pitfalls: Catholic transubstantiation (which he considers tied to an unbiblical Aristotelian philosophy) and Zwinglian memorialism (which empties the Supper of all real efficacy). His solution: Christ is truly present, but his presence is spiritual and celestial -- not corporeal and earthly. The Holy Spirit is the organ of this presence: he lifts hearts (sursum corda) to the glorified Christ. This position -- called 'virtualist' or 'dynamic' -- is distinct from the other two.
📚 Glossary
Sacrament
sacramentum -- sacred sign
Visible rite instituted by Christ joining an external sign and a divine promise. Protestant: 2 sacraments. Catholic/Orthodox: 7 sacraments/mysteries.
Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 11:23-26Ex opere operato
Lat.: by the effect of the act performed
Catholic position: the sacraments confer grace through the sole fact of their valid administration, independently of the minister's or recipient's merit.
DH 1608; CCC 1128Transubstantiation
transsubstantiatio
Conversion of the substance of bread and wine into the substance of the body and blood of Christ at the consecration. Defined at Trent (Session XIII, 1551).
DH 1636-1661In, cum et sub
Lat.: in, with and under
Lutheran formula: Christ's body and blood are present in, with and under the bread and wine. Not transubstantiation. Real presence without change of substance.
FC VII/VIIICredobaptism
βάπτισμα + credo
Anabaptist and Baptist position: only confessing believers can be baptized. Against paedobaptism (infant baptism).
Acts 2:38; Mk 16:16📚 Pour aller plus loin
Primary Sources
Academic Studies
Catholic
How many sacraments does Protestantism recognize and which ones?
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✓
Two: baptism (Mt 28:19; institution by Christ + promise of regeneration) and the Lord's Supper (1 Cor 11:23-26; institution + promise of forgiveness). Protestant criterion: (1) explicit institution by Christ, (2) external sign (water/bread-wine), (3) attached divine promise. Marriage, ordination, penance etc. don't meet all three.
Supper
What does ex opere operato mean?
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✓
Catholic position (Trent, 1547; DH 1608): the sacraments confer grace through the sole fact of their valid administration, independently of the minister's holiness or the subjective faith of the recipient (provided no obstacle is placed). Protestant position: efficacy depends on the faith of the recipient (ex opere operantis).
Transubstantiation
What is the difference between Luther's and Calvin's positions on the Supper?
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Luther (consubstantiation): the body and blood of Christ are truly present in, with and under the bread and wine -- without substance change. Calvin (spiritual presence): Christ is truly present by his Spirit for those who receive by faith -- but his glorified body is at the Father's right hand (sursum corda). Zwingli: pure memorial (est = significat).
Anabaptist
What is transubstantiation?
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✓
Catholic doctrine defined at Trent (Session XIII, 1551; DH 1636-1661): at the consecration, the substance of bread and wine is entirely converted into the body and blood of Christ. The accidents (appearances: color, taste, weight) remain. The priest renews the unique sacrifice of Calvary in the Mass.
Ecumenism
What is credobaptism?
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✓
Anabaptist and Baptist position (Conrad Grebel, Zurich 1525): baptism is reserved for those who personally confess their faith -- not infants. The church is a voluntary community of disciples. Infant baptism is invalid -- Wiedertaufe (re-baptism) required. Biblical basis: 'believes and is baptized' (Mk 16:16; Acts 2:38).
Zurich
What is the BEM (1982)?
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✓
Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry -- Lima Document of the WCC (Faith and Order Commission, 1982). Major ecumenical convergence: recognizes areas of consensus between Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant traditions on the three topics. Not binding but highly influential for ecumenical dialogue.
Leuenberg
What is Zwingli's position on the Supper?
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✓
Pure memorialism: the Supper is a commemoration of Christ's death, not a means of grace in the objective sense. Est = significat: 'This is my body' means 'this signifies my body.' Christ is spiritually present, but not in or through the elements. 1 Cor 11:26: 'you proclaim the Lord's death.'
Luther (consubstantiation): real corporeal presence in, with and under the elements -- without substance change. Body and blood truly present, not merely spiritually. Lk 22:19 taken literally. Christological basis: the ubiquity of Christ's glorified body. Calvin (spiritual presence, 'virtualism'): real spiritual presence -- Christ truly present by his Spirit for those who receive by faith. The Spirit lifts us to Christ (sursum corda). Neither transubstantiation nor mere memorial. Zwingli (memorialism): pure memorial -- the Supper recalls and proclaims Christ's death (1 Cor 11:26). 'This is my body' = 'this signifies my body.' No real presence through the elements. Catholic transubstantiation: substance of bread/wine converted into body/blood (Trent, 1551). Accidents remain. Theological stakes: (1) nature of Christ's glorified humanity; (2) relationship between sign and reality; (3) sacramental efficacy; (4) ecclesiology (who can celebrate a valid Eucharist?).
Gerrish. Grace and Gratitude. T&T Clark, 1993. Council of Trent, Session XIII, DH 1635-1661.
For infant baptism (Lutheran/Reformed): (1) Continuity with OT circumcision (Col 2:11-12) -- Calvin: baptism is the new circumcision, applied to covenant children; (2) Household baptisms in Acts (16:15,33 -- Lydia, jailer); (3) 'Let the children come to me' (Mk 10:14); (4) Baptism confers regenerating grace (Lutheran) or confirms election (Reformed). Against (Anabaptists, Baptists): (1) The NT requires personal faith before baptism (Mk 16:16; Acts 2:38); (2) The Church is a voluntary community of disciples, not a territorial Church; (3) Infant baptism is historically an innovation (early Christianity baptized adults). Protagonists: Conrad Grebel (Zurich, 1525) -- first believer's baptism; Menno Simons (1536) -- Mennonites; Baptist tradition from 17th century England.
Beasley-Murray. Baptism in the New Testament. Eerdmans, 1962. Calvin. Institutes IV.16.
Quiz -- Sacramental Theology
6 questions
Q1/6
The Protestant criterion for recognizing a sacrament requires all of the following EXCEPT:
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Protestant sacramental criterion (Calvin, Institutes IV.14; Luther, Large Catechism): (1) institution by Christ himself, (2) external sign, (3) attached promise. Marriage, ordination, and penance do not meet all three criteria. No council recognition is required -- only the word of institution.Q2/6
Calvin's position on Christ's presence in the Supper is called:
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Calvin (Institutes IV.17): real spiritual presence -- Christ is truly present for those who receive by faith, but his glorified body remains at the Father's right hand. The Spirit lifts hearts to the glorified Christ (sursum corda). Not transubstantiation (Catholic), not consubstantiation (Lutheran), not pure memorialism (Zwingli).Q3/6
The formula 'in, cum et sub' (in, with and under) describes:
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Lutheran formula (FC VII/VIII): Christ's body and blood are truly present in, with and under the bread and wine of the Supper -- without change of substance (unlike Catholic transubstantiation, which changes the substance). The bread remains bread, but Christ is truly corporally present with the bread.Q4/6
The BEM (Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, 1982) is:
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BEM (Lima, 1982): WCC Faith and Order Commission convergence document. It is NOT binding but has been highly influential in ecumenical dialogue. It identifies areas of consensus between Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant traditions on baptism, the Eucharist, and ministry. Each church was invited to respond officially.Q5/6
The Anabaptist argument against infant baptism rests primarily on:
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Anabaptists (Conrad Grebel, Zurich 1525): baptism requires a prior confession of faith (Mk 16:16; Acts 2:38). The church is not a territorial or popular church but a voluntary community of disciples. Infant baptism confuses the church with civil society and is historically a later development.Q6/6
In the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, after consecration:
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Council of Trent (Session XIII, 1551; DH 1636-1661): transubstantiation = conversion of the entire substance of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. The accidents (color, taste, weight) remain. Not annihilation, not impanation (Lutheran-type co-existence), but conversion of substance.Score
Bibliography / Bibliographie / Bibliografia
Sacramental theology -- patristic and medieval
- Justin Martyr. 1 Apology, ch. 65-67 (ca. 150). SC 507.
- Cyprian. De ecclesiae unitate. SC 500.
- Augustine. Tractates on John. CChr.SL 36.
- Peter Lombard. Sentences, IV (1158).
- Aquinas. Summa Theologiae, III, q. 60-83.
- Hugh of Saint Victor. De sacramentis. PL 176.
Reformation -- sacramental debates
- Luther. Babylonian Captivity (1520). LW 36.
- Luther. Confession Concerning Christ's Supper (1528). LW 37.
- Zwingli. Commentary on True and False Religion (1525). Z III.
- Calvin. Institutes, IV.14-19.
- Trent. Sessions VII, XIII, XXI-XXII, XXIV.
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