The Epistle to the Ephesians is the epistle of Pauline cosmic mysticism. Of disputed authenticity (probably a deutero-Pauline epistle), it articulates a grandiose cosmic christology: Christ the head of the Church and the fullness of all things, the unity of Jew and gentile abolishing the "dividing wall" (Eph 2:14), the Church as mystical body and bride, the mystery hidden and revealed, the Christian life as spiritual combat. A hymnic style, long chained sentences (Eph 1:3-14 forms a single sentence in Greek), a vocabulary of high mysticism. The first Christian text to articulate a true theology of catholicity.
Overview
Author
"Paul, an apostle of Jesus Christ by the will of God" (Eph 1:1). But the direct Pauline authenticity is much contested by modern criticism (since Erasmus and Schleiermacher). The majority critical position today: a deutero-Pauline epistle, written by a close disciple in the years AD 80-90. The conservative position: direct Pauline authenticity (Hoehner, Schnackenburg, O'Brien).
Date of composition
If authentically Pauline: c. AD 60-62, from the Roman captivity (Acts 28). If deutero-Pauline: c. AD 80-95, probably by a disciple who also composed Colossians (or conversely, Ephesians being a rereading of Colossians).
Addressees
The address "at Ephesus" (ἐν Ἐφέσῳ, Eph 1:1) is absent from the best manuscripts (P46, אA, B). The majority hypothesis: an encyclical intended for several Churches of Asia Minor, the name of the city being variable. The general character of the epistle (no personal greetings despite the Pauline stay at Ephesus, cf. Acts 19) reinforces this hypothesis.
Place of composition
If Pauline: Rome (captivity). If deutero-Pauline: probably Ephesus or Asia Minor.
Occasion / context
A circular epistle, a catechetical encyclical without a precise addressee or particular problem. The aim is synthetic: to expound the universal nature of the Church as the body of Christ and the eschatological fullness of the divine design.
Original language
Careful Koine Greek, a chained hymnic style (Eph 1:3-14: a single sentence of 202 words), a rich "mystical" vocabulary (μυστήριον, πλήρωμα, ἐπουράνια), 35 hapax legomena in the NT, striking resemblances to Colossians (parallelism over about a third of the text).
Place in the canon
Received universally from the 2nd century. Present in Marcion (c. 140) under the name "Letter to the Laodiceans," the Muratorian Canon (c. 170), Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian.
Authenticity and authorship criticism
The Pauline authenticity of Ephesians is the major critical question. Several arguments have led the majority of modern criticism (since Schleiermacher 1825) to conclude that it is a deutero-Pauline epistle.
Arguments against direct Pauline authenticity:
(1) Vocabulary and style. Ephesians contains 35 hapax legomena (words that appear nowhere else in the undisputed Pauline corpus), a hymnic style with extremely long sentences (Eph 1:3-14: 202 words in a single sentence), a "mystical" vocabulary (μυστήριον, πλήρωμα, οἰκονομία) unusual for Paul.
(2) Theology. An elevated cosmic christology (Christ the head of the universe, Eph 1:22-23); a "catholic" ecclesiology (the universal Church, without a concrete local community); a "realised" eschatology (Eph 2:5-6: "raised together and seated together in the heavenly places in Christ Jesus," past tense) whereas the undisputed Paul keeps a tensed eschatology (cf. Rom 6:5; 1 Cor 15); the absence of the theme of justification by faith apart from the works of the Law; the accentuated role of the apostles and prophets as the foundation of the Church (Eph 2:20), betraying a post-apostolic perspective.
(3) Relation to Colossians. A striking parallelism between Ephesians and Colossians (about a third of the text overlaps), but Ephesians reformulates and amplifies. The dominant hypothesis: a disciple of Paul composed Ephesians from Colossians, as an amplified meditation.
(4) Encyclical character. The absence of a precise address (textually in P46, אA, B), the absence of personal greetings to individuals whereas Paul lived two years at Ephesus (Acts 19:10): unlikely if it were an authentic Pauline letter.
Arguments for direct Pauline authenticity (Hoehner, Schnackenburg, O'Brien, Carson):
(1) Strong external attestation: a unanimous tradition from the 2nd century. No patristic testimony contests the authenticity.
(2) The vocabulary and style may be explained by the encyclical and liturgical character of the epistle, in which Paul adopts a hymnic and catechetical register different from his occasional letters.
(3) Paul may have evolved theologically after his undisputed letters, towards a more universalist and cosmic vision.
(4) The parallelism with Colossians is explained by the simultaneous composition of the two letters, or by a composition by Paul at very close moments.
The dominant critical position today: deutero-Pauline (Best, Lincoln, Schnackenburg in his last volume, Pokorný, Hoppe, Faust, MacDonald, Sellin). The conservative position: Pauline authenticity (Hoehner, O'Brien, Thielman, Carson, Moo, Morris). The Theologische Realenzyklopädie (article "Epheserbrief") considers the question unsettled but leaning towards pseudepigraphy.
Ancient pseudepigraphy: an important note: pseudepigraphy (writing under the name of a master) was not considered fraud in Greco-Jewish antiquity (cf. the Jewish pseudepigrapha: Enoch, 4 Ezra) but an act of homage and continuation. Ephesians would then be a "Pauline letter" in the sense of a faithful pneumatic continuation of Paulinism.
Literary structure
Salutation and cosmic blessing(Eph 1:1-14)
Salutation (1:1-2). Blessing to the Father who elected in Christ before the foundation of the world (1:3-14), a single Greek sentence articulated in three trinitarian doxologies: the Father who elects (1:3-6), the Son who redeems (1:7-12), the Spirit who seals (1:13-14). The recapitulation (ἀνακεφαλαιώσασθαι, 1:10) of all things in Christ.
Prayer for knowledge(Eph 1:15-23)
Thanksgiving, a prayer for knowledge, wisdom, and hope (1:15-19). The cosmic exaltation of Christ (1:20-23): raised, seated at the right hand, above every principality, authority, power, and dominion; head of the Church which is his body and his fullness.
Salvation by grace, new life(Eph 2:1-10)
Dead in trespasses (2:1-3). But God, rich in mercy, made us alive with Christ (2:4-7). "For by grace you have been saved, through faith. And this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God. It is not from works, so that no one may boast" (2:8-9). The workmanship of God created for good works (2:10).
Reconciliation of Jews and gentiles(Eph 2:11-22)
Remembrance: gentiles "without Christ, strangers to the commonwealth of Israel" (2:11-12). Now brought near by the blood of Christ (2:13). Christ is our peace (2:14): he has broken down the dividing wall (μεσότοιχον), creating in himself one new man, making peace, reconciling both in one body through the cross (2:14-18). Fellow citizens with the saints, members of the household of God (2:19-22).
The mystery and its Pauline ministry(Eph 3:1-21)
Paul a prisoner for the gentiles, minister of grace (3:1-13). The "mystery" (μυστήριον) hidden for ages, now revealed: the gentiles are fellow heirs, members of the same body, partakers of the promise (3:6). A prayer (3:14-21): that Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith, a final doxology.
Unity of the Church, diverse ministries(Eph 4:1-16)
Unity (4:1-6): one body, one Spirit, one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all. Ministries given to the body (4:7-13): apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors-teachers, for the building up of the body to maturity. Growth in the truth (4:14-16).
The old life and the new life(Eph 4:17 – 5:21)
To put off the old man, to put on the new man (4:17-32). Imitators of God, in love (5:1-2). A catalogue of sins to avoid (5:3-14). To walk with wisdom, as children of light (5:15-21), filled with the Spirit, singing psalms and hymns.
The household code: wives-husbands, children-parents, slaves-masters(Eph 5:22 – 6:9)
Wives subject to husbands, as the Church to Christ (5:22-24). Husbands love their wives as Christ loved the Church by giving himself for her (5:25-33). Children obey parents, parents do not provoke children (6:1-4). Slaves and masters in like relation to Christ (6:5-9). The household code (Haustafel) already present in Col 3:18 – 4:1.
The armour of God(Eph 6:10-20)
Spiritual combat not against flesh and blood but against principalities and powers (6:10-12). To put on the armour of God (6:13-17): the belt of truth, the breastplate of righteousness, the sandals of the Gospel of peace, the shield of faith, the helmet of salvation, the sword of the Spirit (the Word of God). Persevering prayer (6:18-20).
Final recommendations(Eph 6:21-24)
The sending of Tychicus (6:21-22). The final blessing (6:23-24).
Principal theology
The cosmic recapitulation in Christ (Eph 1:10)
Eph 1:10 states: "the mystery of his will... for the economy of the fullness of times, namely to recapitulate in Christ all things, those that are in the heavens and those that are on the earth" (ἀνακεφαλαιώσασθαι τὰ πάντα ἐν τῷ Χριστῷ, τὰ ἐπὶ τοῖς οὐρανοῖς καὶ τὰ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς). This Pauline formula (probably deutero-Pauline) has an exceptional cosmic scope.
The verb ἀνακεφαλαιόω. Compounded on κεφαλή (head) with the prefix ἀνα- (again, upwards), it means "to gather under one head" or "to recapitulate." The term evokes the head that gathers the body, and Greek rhetoric (recapitulatio = a concluding summary). In Eph 1, it is Christ who "recapitulates" the universe in his person.
The theology of recapitulation in Irenaeus. Irenaeus of Lyon (Adv. Haer. III, 18-22; V, 21-22) develops a major theology of recapitulatio: Christ, by becoming incarnate, takes up and restores the whole of human history; he redoes, as the new Adam, what Adam had undone. This theology is one of the great patristic readings of Eph 1:10.
Cosmic christology. The Christ of Ephesians is cosmic: he is above every principality, authority, power, dominion (1:21); head of the Church which is his body and his fullness (1:22-23: πλήρωμα, a term taken up in Col 2:9-10 and Jn 1:16). This cosmic christology influenced: (a) Greek patristics (Origen, Athanasius, Maximus the Confessor, Bulgakov in Orthodox sophiology); (b) medieval mysticism (Bonaventure, Itinerarium); (c) modern cosmic theology (Teilhard de Chardin, The Universal Christ, The Phenomenon of Man, 1955).
Contemporary ecological theology. Christian ecological theology (Laudato Si', the encyclical of Francis 2015; Jürgen Moltmann, God in Creation 1985; Norman Habel, Elizabeth Johnson) finds in Eph 1:10 a foundation for a cosmic christology embracing non-human creation.
The "mystery" (μυστήριον). The term appears six times in Ephesians (1:9; 3:3,4,9; 5:32; 6:19). It designates the divine plan hidden for ages and now revealed in Christ: (a) the cosmic recapitulation (1:9-10); (b) the inclusion of the gentiles in the people of God (3:3-6); (c) marriage as an image of Christ-Church (5:32). This usage influenced sacramental doctrine: the Latin mysterium gave sacramentum, and Eastern sacramental theology speaks of the "holy mysteries" (hagia mystēria).
The Church as body and bride of Christ
Ephesians develops Pauline ecclesiology to the highest degree. Three principal metaphors structure the Ephesian ecclesiology:
(1) The Church as the body of Christ (Eph 1:22-23; 4:4,12-16; 5:23,30). A metaphor already present in 1 Cor 12 and Rom 12, but radicalised in Ephesians. Christ is the head of the body (κεφαλή τοῦ σώματος, 1:22; 4:15; 5:23). This precision (Christ as head, not as a member among others) introduces a new hierarchical dimension. The Church is the fullness (πλήρωμα) of Christ who fills all in all (1:23). This ecclesiology inspired the Catholic doctrine of the "mystical body of Christ" (Mystici Corporis Christi, Pius XII 1943).
(2) The Church as the temple of the Holy Spirit (Eph 2:19-22). "You have been built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Christ Jesus himself being the cornerstone... to be a dwelling of God in the Spirit." The architectural image (foundation, cornerstone, the harmonious growth of the edifice) underlines the trinitarian dimension of the Church: the Father who is dwelt in, the Son who is the cornerstone, the Spirit who is the vital air. The precision that the Church is founded on "the apostles and the prophets" (2:20) betrays a post-apostolic perspective.
(3) The Church as the bride of Christ (Eph 5:22-33). Human marriage is a typos of the Christ-Church relationship. Christ loved the Church and gave himself for her (5:25) in order to make her holy, glorious, without spot or wrinkle. This passage is one of the most disputed texts of the NT (cf. dispute no. 2). It combines two themes: (a) marriage as an Old Testament nuptial symbol (Hos 1-3; Ezek 16, 23; the Song of Songs); (b) a christological typology. Augustine and the Latin tradition read Eph 5:32 ("this mystery is great") in a sacramental sense: sacramentum est magnum, at the basis of the doctrine of marriage as a sacrament.
The Jew-gentile unity (Eph 2:11-22). The cornerstone of the Ephesian ecclesiology: "For he is our peace, who has made the two one, and has broken down the dividing wall, the enmity, having abolished in his flesh the law of commandments with its ordinances, in order to create in himself out of the two one new man, making peace" (2:14-15). The "dividing wall" (μεσότοιχον τοῦ φραγμοῦ) probably evokes the wall of the Temple that separated the court of the gentiles from the court of the Jews. The theology of the new humanity (καινὸς ἄνθρωπος) in Christ abolishes the historical antagonism between Jews and gentiles. A founding text of Christian ecclesiology, but to be reread today in a non-supersessionist manner.
The unity of the Church (Eph 4:4-6). The list of seven "ones": "there is one body and one Spirit, just as you were called to one hope by your calling; there is one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all, who is above all, and through all, and in all." This text is the foundation of modern ecumenism (Unitatis Redintegratio, Vatican II 1964; WCRC; the ecumenical movement since Edinburgh 1910).
Salvation by grace, vocation to holiness (Eph 2:8-10)
Eph 2:8-10 states the Pauline doctrine of justification by grace in the clearest manner: "For by grace you have been saved, through faith. And this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God. It is not from works, so that no one may boast. For we are his workmanship (ποίημα), having been created in Christ Jesus for good works, which God prepared beforehand, that we should walk in them."
Ephesian soteriology. Three elements:
(1) Salvation is by grace (χάριτι ἐστε σεσῳσμένοι). The perfect tense (σεσῳσμένοι) marks an accomplished state, a "realised" eschatology: we are already saved (as opposed to the tensed eschatology of the undisputed Paul, who speaks of salvation as future, Rom 5:9-10). This realised eschatology is one of the arguments against direct Pauline authenticity.
(2) Salvation is through faith (διὰ πίστεως). Apart from the works of the Law. This doctrine, central in Romans and Galatians, is here reformulated in universal terms (salvation by grace and through faith, not by works). It is the most stripped-down and lapidary version of the Pauline doctrine. Luther valued it as a synthesis, Calvin cites it as a pillar-text of the sola gratia.
(3) The new creation for good works (Eph 2:10). "We are his workmanship (ποίημα), created in Christ Jesus for good works prepared beforehand." Far from opposing faith and works, Paul articulates: faith alone saves, but it necessarily produces works prepared beforehand by God. This formulation is very close to the Joint Declaration on Justification (1999, the Catholic-Lutheran agreement): faith and works are not opposed in soteriology but are articulated in an integrated Christian life.
The theology of Christian vocation. Eph 4:1 states: "I exhort you to walk in a manner worthy of the calling (κλήσεως) with which you were called." Christian vocation (klēsis, in Latin vocatio) is a central Pauline concept, taken up in the 16th century by Luther (Beruf) and extended to every ordinary occupation (Calvin Inst. III, 10; Max Weber The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, 1904-1905 on the Protestant Beruf). Every Christian is called to holiness in his ordinary occupation; not only monks and clerics. This is one of the great intuitions of the Reformation.
The Christian walk (Eph 4:17 – 6:20). The second part of the epistle develops the paraenesis: to walk in newness (4:17-32), in love (5:1-2), in light (5:7-14), in wisdom (5:15-21). This paraenesis is not a return to legal works but an expression of living faith. The household code (Haustafel, 5:22 – 6:9) and the armour of God (6:10-20) conclude it.
Major theological disputes
The following disputes draw on the six great confessional voices (Catholic, Orthodox, Reformed, Lutheran, Anglican, Anabaptist), with interjections from Professor Tryphon Goldberg, the site's Jewish pedagogical persona.
Pauline authenticity or pseudepigraphy?
Is the Epistle to the Ephesians by Paul or by a disciple? This critical question has major theological implications: the status of the text, canonical authority, dating, historical context. The Christian confessions diverged in their reception of historical criticism.
Catholic
The Catholic Church receives Ephesians as a Pauline epistle in the canonical sense. The Pontifical Biblical Commission, in its De fontibus Revelationis (1907, 1913), reaffirmed direct Pauline authenticity, but this position was nuanced by Divino Afflante Spiritu (Pius XII, 1943) and Dei Verbum (Vatican II, 1965). Contemporary Catholic criticism (Rudolf Schnackenburg, Joseph Fitzmyer, Raymond Brown) generally accepts deutero-Pauline authorship. But the canonical status of Ephesians remains intact: the authority of the text does not depend on its historical author but on its integration into the canon. Ancient pseudepigraphy, common in Second Temple Judaism (pseudepigrapha: Enoch, 4 Ezra), is compatible with canonicity.
Orthodox
Orthodoxy has participated little in the debates on Pauline authenticity. The Orthodox tradition receives Ephesians as Pauline and uses it liturgically. Modern historical criticism has penetrated Orthodoxy less. Contemporary theologians: Metropolitan John Zizioulas, Christos Yannaras, Andrew Louth use Ephesians in their ecclesiology without entering into questions of authenticity. Continuity with the patristic tradition (Chrysostom, Theodoret, Cyril of Alexandria) takes precedence.
Reformed
The Reformed tradition generally received Ephesians as Pauline. Calvin (Commentary on Ephesians, 1548) does not doubt it. But contemporary Reformed criticism generally accepts deutero-Pauline authorship (Andrew Lincoln, Ephesians, WBC 42, 1990; Robert Hoehner defends the authenticity against the majority tendency). For the Reformed, the canonical status of Ephesians is intact: canonical authority comes from the Holy Spirit and the canonising Church, not from the human author (WCRC, IRG).
Lutheran
The post-Reformation Lutheran tradition long held to Pauline authenticity. But Lutheran historical criticism (since Schleiermacher, Baur, Holtzmann) cast doubt very early, and the majority of contemporary Lutherans accept deutero-Pauline authorship (Ernst Käsemann, Peter Stuhlmacher, Joachim Gnilka, Catholic but Lutheran-influenced). Conservative position: Donald Guthrie, Werner de Boor. For the Lutherans, the authority of Ephesians remains solid because the text belongs to the biblical canon received by the ecclesial community.
Anglican
Anglicanism contributed importantly to the criticism of Ephesians. C. L. Mitton (The Epistle to the Ephesians, 1951) defends deutero-Pauline authorship by statistical analysis. Churchmen such as John Stott defend the authenticity (The Message of Ephesians, BST, 1979). N. T. Wright remains cautious on the question. Anglicanism has long distinguished canonical authority and the historicity of the signature. Lancelot Andrewes, Hooker, and the tradition of the Anglican Communion receive Ephesians canonically, independently of the historical author.
Anabaptist
Contemporary Anabaptists have written little specifically on the authenticity of Ephesians. The Anabaptist tradition largely accepts the conclusions of academic historical criticism (deutero-Pauline authorship of Ephesians), while maintaining the canonical authority of the text. The Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary, the Anabaptist Mennonite Biblical Seminary contribute to the debate. Position: canonicity depends on communal reception, not on the individual signature (cf. Yoder, The Politics of Jesus, which mobilises Eph 6 on the spiritual armour without raising the question of authorship).
Synthesis
The Pauline authenticity of Ephesians is today a majority criticism in favour of deutero-Pauline authorship, but with a significant minority defending direct authenticity. All the great confessional traditions maintain the canonical authority of the text, distinguishing historical authenticity and canonical authority. Ancient pseudepigraphy is not fraud but homage and continuation. Ephesians remains one of the most influential Pauline texts for ecclesiology, cosmic christology, and Christian mysticism. Its contemporary critical rereading allows a better understanding of the diversity of Paulinism and of the evolution of post-apostolic ecclesiological thought.
The household code (Eph 5:22-33): subordination or equality?
"Wives, be subject to your own husbands, as to the Lord; for the husband is the head of the wife, as Christ also is the head of the Church" (Eph 5:22-23). This household code long grounded a patriarchal vision of Christian marriage. How is this text to be read today in the light of Gal 3:28 ("there is no longer male and female") and of the fundamental equality of all the baptised?
Catholic
The Catholic Church long read Eph 5:22-33 as the foundation of the traditional conjugal hierarchy (the husband the head, the wife subject). A renewed position since John Paul II (Mulieris Dignitatem, 1988; Theology of the Body, catecheses 1979-1984), who speaks of mutual submission (relying on Eph 5:21: "be subject to one another in the fear of Christ"). Marriage is a sacrament (Council of Trent, session XXIV, 1563), indissoluble, open to life. Amoris Laetitia (Francis, 2016) accentuates the dimension of personal communion. Theologians: Hans Urs von Balthasar (who maintains a distinction of roles), Edith Stein, Joseph Ratzinger, Angelo Scola.
Orthodox
Orthodoxy maintains a relatively traditional vision of marriage: a sacrament (the crowning, stephanoma), a distinction of roles in complementarity. But contemporary Orthodox theology (Paul Evdokimov, The Sacrament of Love 1962; Olivier Clément, Élisabeth Behr-Sigel) renews towards a more egalitarian vision. Woman and man are equally the image of God (Gen 1:27); complementarity in marriage does not imply an ontological hierarchy. Pastoral practice: divorce and remarriage admitted exceptionally by oikonomia.
Reformed
Calvin read Eph 5 traditionally (marital hierarchy). But the contemporary Reformed Churches have massively evolved towards an egalitarian vision: EPUF, EERF, PCUSA, the United Church of Canada... A contextualised reading: Eph 5 reflects the patriarchal culture of the 1st century (Aristotelian-Stoic household codes), and Christianity introduces into it an internal revolution ("as Christ loved the Church by giving himself for her," 5:25) that surpasses patriarchy. The ultimate criterion is Gal 3:28 and evangelical freedom. Theologians: Karl Barth (Church Dogmatics III/4), Jürgen Moltmann, Letty Russell, Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza (Catholic-feminist), Phyllis Trible. A persistent conservative position: Wayne Grudem, John Piper (complementarianism against egalitarianism).
Lutheran
Luther read Eph 5 traditionally (marital hierarchy, ordered complementarity). But contemporary Lutheranism has evolved: the Church of Sweden, the EKD, the ELCA recognise the fundamental equality and ordain women. The Augsburg Confession (1530) does not specifically address the question. Lutheran Pietism (Spener, Francke) sometimes reinforced domestic patriarchy. Contemporary theologians: Wolfhart Pannenberg, Christine Janowski, Marit Trelstad. A conservative minority position: the LCMS (Missouri).
Anglican
Anglicanism evolved from a traditional reading towards a largely egalitarian vision. The Book of Common Prayer (1662) still reflects a moderate patriarchal model. The ordination of women (1994, priests; 2014, bishops) marks ministerial equality. Contemporary conjugal practice: Sarah Mullally (Archbishop of Canterbury enthroned 2026) is married. The Thirty-Nine Articles do not treat it explicitly. The majority contemporary position: mutual submission (Eph 5:21 as the key to Eph 5:22-33). Theologians: N. T. Wright, John Stott (who remained conservative on the ordination of women).
Anabaptist
The 16th-century Anabaptists held diverse positions: the mainstream (Mennonites) tending towards a traditional reading, the spiritualist wings (Hans Denck, Caspar Schwenckfeld) towards a more egalitarian one. Amish, Hutterite, Old Mennonite practice: very traditional. Contemporary Mennonite practice (Mennonite Church USA, Mennonite Brethren): more egalitarian, the ordination of women possible. The theology of John Howard Yoder (his reflection on the household code in The Politics of Jesus ch. 9-10, where he proposes "revolutionary subordination": Christ is the model of a voluntary subordination that transforms power relations); but Yoder himself was found guilty of sexual abuse (posthumous revelations, an inquiry in 2015), which casts a problematic light on his theology.
Synthesis
Eph 5:22-33 is one of the most disputed texts of the NT on marriage. The historical-critical reading recognises a household code typical of the 1st century (cf. the Aristotelian-Stoic parallels, Plutarch, Seneca), modified by the Christian intuition ("as Christ loved the Church by giving himself for her"). The majority contemporary reading (Catholic Mulieris Dignitatem, Reformed, Lutheran, Anglican) speaks of mutual submission (Eph 5:21) more than of unilateral submission. The conservative complementarian position (Grudem, Piper, certain evangelical Churches) maintains a distinction of roles. Contemporary Christian marriage articulates scriptural fidelity and the recognition of the ontological equality between spouses. The blessing of same-sex unions adds a new line of division.
Jew-gentile reconciliation (Eph 2:11-22) and supersessionism
"He has broken down the dividing wall, the enmity, having abolished in his flesh the law of commandments with its ordinances, in order to create in himself out of the two one new man" (Eph 2:14-15). This text seems to state an abolition of the Jewish Law and a Jew-gentile fusion into a new Christian humanity. A supersessionist reading is possible. How is it to be reread after Vatican II?
Catholic
The Catholic Church rereads Eph 2:11-22 in a non-supersessionist perspective since Nostra Aetate (Vatican II, 1965) and The Gifts and Calling of God Are Irrevocable (2015). The "dividing wall" is not the Jewish Law as such (Rom 7:12: the Law is holy) but the historical barriers of enmity. The "new humanity" in Christ does not abolish Israel but includes the gentiles in the covenant of Abraham (cf. Rom 4; Gal 3). The theology of Jean-Marie Lustiger, Bruno Hussar (a converted Jew, founder of Neve Shalom-Wahat as-Salam), Joseph Ratzinger.
Orthodox
Orthodoxy has treated Eph 2 less explicitly in a non-supersessionist perspective. The Orthodox liturgical tradition uses a rich figurative typology ("the old Israel" / "the new Israel"). The contemporary Orthodox theologians (Olivier Clément, Élisabeth Behr-Sigel, Metropolitan Anthony Bloom) open onto dialogue. Ecumenical Patriarchs. Position: Christ is the fulfilment of the covenant, not its replacement. The universal theōsis does not consist in effacing the historical differences but in transfiguring them.
Reformed
Karl Barth (Church Dogmatics IV/3) renewed Reformed ecclesiology: the Church does not replace Israel; the two constitute the one elect people. The WCRC (1971, The Church and Israel) rejects supersessionism. Eph 2 must be reread without abolishing the permanent election of Israel. Contemporary theologians: Kendall Soulen (The God of Israel and Christian Theology, 1996), Robert Jenson, Bruce McCormack. The caro Israelis remains part of the one elect people in Christ.
Lutheran
Lutheranism bears the historical weight of the anti-Jewish writings of the late Luther (On the Jews and Their Lies, 1543). The LWF explicitly rejected these writings (Stockholm 1983, Declaration 1994). Eph 2 is reread without supersessionism. The "new humanity" does not abolish Israel; the "dividing wall" designates the historical barriers of enmity, not the Jewish Law in itself. Theologians: Pannenberg, Jüngel, Christoph Markschies, Notger Slenczka (who triggered controversy by suggesting the decanonisation of the OT in Lutheran practice — a position rejected by the majority).
Anglican
Contemporary Anglicanism rejects supersessionism. God's Unfailing Word (the Church of England, 2019) rereads Eph 2 in a non-supersessionist perspective. Lambeth Conference 1988, 1998, 2008. Theologians: Walter Moberly, Markus Bockmuehl. The Anglican Communion integrates Jewish-Christian dialogue. Sarah Mullally carries this commitment at Canterbury.
Anabaptist
Contemporary Anabaptists reject supersessionism. The theology of John Howard Yoder (The Jewish-Christian Schism Revisited, posthumous 2003) proposes a non-supersessionist vision in which Church and synagogue derive from a contingent schism, not a theological rupture. Eph 2 must be reread without abolishing Israel. A position complicated by the posthumous revelations about Yoder (sexual abuse). Theologians: Stanley Hauerwas, Peter Ochs (a Jewish-Mennonite collaboration), Mark Thiessen Nation.
Synthesis
Eph 2:11-22 can no longer be read in a supersessionist sense after the rejection of supersessionism by all the great Christian traditions since Vatican II. The "new humanity" in Christ does not mean the abolition of Israel but the inclusion of the gentiles in the covenant of Abraham. The "dividing wall" designates the historical barriers of enmity, not the Jewish Law as such. Contemporary Christianity-Judaism theology (Boys, Cunningham, Soulen, Kessler) articulates Christian fidelity to Christ and the recognition of the permanent election of Israel. The Jewish-Christian dialogue remains a major hermeneutical site.
Historical reception
Patristic reception (2nd-5th c.)
Origen (Commentary on Ephesians, fragments) reads Ephesians allegorically. John Chrysostom (Homilies on Ephesians, 24 homilies) comments on ecclesiology, marriage, the armour of God. Theodoret of Cyrus, Severian of Gabala comment.
Ambrosiaster (Latin), Jerome (Commentariorum in epistolam ad Ephesios libri tres, c. 386-388), Augustine (sermons) comment. Marius Victorinus (c. 365) offers a Neoplatonic Latin commentary. On Eph 1:10 (recapitulation), Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. III, 16-22) develops his major theology of recapitulatio.
Medieval reception
Thomas Aquinas (Super Epistolam ad Ephesios, c. 1265-1268) comments on Ephesians in the wake of Augustine and Peter Lombard. His doctrine of grace (S.Th. I-II, q. 109-114) is rooted in Eph 2:8-10. On Eph 5:32 ("this mystery is great"), Thomas receives the translation sacramentum hoc magnum est and grounds the doctrine of marriage as a sacrament.
Bonaventure (Itinerarium mentis in Deum) reads Eph 4:13 ("the fullness of the perfect stature of Christ") as the paradigm of spiritual growth. Hugh of Saint-Cher, Peter Lombard (Sentences IV, dist. 26 on marriage). The Glossa ordinaria compiles.
Byzantine reception
The Byzantine exegesis of Ephesians follows Chrysostom. Oecumenius, Theophylact of Ohrid (11th c.), Euthymios Zigabenos comment. On Eph 1:10 (recapitulation), Maximus the Confessor (7th c.) develops his cosmic christology: all is recapitulated in Christ.
On Eph 4:13 (fullness), Gregory Palamas (Triads) integrates it into his theology of the divine energies. Nicholas Cabasilas (The Life in Christ) comments on Eph 5:30 ("we are members of his body").
Reformation reception
Luther did not formally comment on Ephesians but regularly cites Eph 2:8-10 as a pillar-text of the sola gratia and sola fide. His Preface to Ephesians (1522) underlines the grandeur of the Pauline doctrine of salvation.
Calvin publishes in 1548 his Commentary on Ephesians: philological rigour, doctrinal sobriety. Calvin defends the sola gratia by relying on Eph 2:8-10 ("so that no one may boast"). On Eph 5:32, Calvin rejects the sacramental sense: marriage is not a sacrament in the sense of the evangelical sacraments (baptism, the Lord's Supper) but an order of creation.
On the Catholic side: Cornelius a Lapide (d. 1637), Estius comment. The Council of Trent (session XXIV, 1563) on marriage cites Eph 5:32 as a key text.
On the radical side: the Anabaptists read Eph 4:4-6 (the seven "ones") as the foundation of visible ecclesial unity.
Modern reception (19th-21st c.)
The modern exegesis of Ephesians went through several turning points. (1) F. C. Baur (1845) ranks Ephesians among the deutero-Pauline epistles. (2) Heinrich Holtzmann (Kritik der Epheser- und Kolosserbriefe, 1872) systematises the arguments against the authenticity.
(3) C. L. Mitton (The Epistle to the Ephesians, 1951) defends deutero-Pauline authorship by statistical analysis. (4) Markus Barth (Ephesians, AB 34-34A, 1974) offers a monumental commentary that defends a Pauline authenticity. (5) Rudolf Schnackenburg (Der Brief an die Epheser, EKK 10, 1982) shifts towards deutero-Pauline authorship.
(6) Andrew Lincoln (Ephesians, WBC 42, 1990) remains a reference commentary. (7) Margaret MacDonald (Colossians and Ephesians, SacPag 17, 2000) deepens the sociology of the deutero-Pauline epistles. (8) Harold Hoehner (Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary, 2002) defends the authenticity.
(9) Contextual readings: feminist (E. Schüssler Fiorenza, In Memory of Her 1983; Sandra Polaski), liberationist, postcolonial. Additional commentaries: Peter O'Brien (PNTC, 1999), Ernest Best (ICC, 1998), Frank Thielman (BECNT, 2010), Clinton Arnold (ZECNT, 2010), Stephen Fowl (NTL, 2012).
Selected bibliography
References selected according to the conventions of the SBL Handbook of Style (2nd ed., 2014).
Arnold, Clinton E. Ephesians. ZECNT 10. Grand Rapids : Zondervan, 2010.
Barth, Markus. Ephesians. 2 vols. AB 34-34A. Garden City : Doubleday, 1974.
Best, Ernest. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Ephesians. ICC. Edinburgh : T&T Clark, 1998.
Bruce, F. F. The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians. NICNT. Grand Rapids : Eerdmans, 1984.
Dettwiler, Andreas, Jean-Daniel Kaestli, and Daniel Marguerat, eds. Paul, une théologie en construction. Le Monde de la Bible 51. Geneva: Labor et Fides, 2004.
Fowl, Stephen E. Ephesians : A Commentary. NTL. Louisville : Westminster John Knox, 2012.
Hoehner, Harold W. Ephesians : An Exegetical Commentary. Grand Rapids : Baker Academic, 2002.
Lincoln, Andrew T. Ephesians. WBC 42. Dallas : Word, 1990.
MacDonald, Margaret Y. Colossians and Ephesians. SacPag 17. Collegeville : Liturgical Press, 2000.
Mitton, C. Leslie. The Epistle to the Ephesians : Its Authorship, Origin, and Purpose. Oxford : Clarendon, 1951.
Mouton, Elna. Reading a New Testament Document Ethically. SBLAcBib 1. Atlanta : Society of Biblical Literature, 2002.
Muddiman, John. The Epistle to the Ephesians. BNTC. London : Continuum, 2001.
O'Brien, Peter T. The Letter to the Ephesians. PNTC. Grand Rapids : Eerdmans, 1999.
Pokorný, Petr. Der Brief des Paulus an die Epheser. ThHKNT. Leipzig : Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1992.
Schnackenburg, Rudolf. Der Brief an die Epheser. EKK 10. Zurich : Benziger / Neukirchen : Neukirchener, 1982.
Sellin, Gerhard. Der Brief an die Epheser. KEK 8. Göttingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008.
Talbert, Charles H. Ephesians and Colossians. Paideia. Grand Rapids : Baker Academic, 2007.
Thielman, Frank. Ephesians. BECNT. Grand Rapids : Baker Academic, 2010.
Witherington, Ben III. The Letters to Philemon, the Colossians, and the Ephesians : A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on the Captivity Epistles. Grand Rapids : Eerdmans, 2007.
Yoder Neufeld, Thomas R. Ephesians. Believers Church Bible Commentary. Scottdale : Herald, 2002.