The third gospel of the canon and the first volume of the Lukan work (together with the Acts of the Apostles), the Gospel of Luke unfolds a theology of universal salvation offered to the poor, to sinners, to women, and to Gentiles. It grants an exceptional place to the Holy Spirit, to prayer, and to divine mercy. Its literary quality of Greek, its careful historical framework, and its socio-ethical sensibility make it the gospel most accessible to Greco-Roman readers and one of the most influential in Christian spirituality.
Overview
Author
Luke, a physician (Col 4:14), companion of Paul (2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 24), a converted Gentile according to tradition. Sole author of Luke-Acts according to the common prologue (Lk 1:1-4; Acts 1:1).
Date of composition
AD 75-85. The knowledge of the destruction of Jerusalem (Lk 21:20-24), the use of Mark, and the ecclesiological maturity place the composition after 70, probably before 90.
Addressees
Theophilus (Lk 1:3; Acts 1:1), a literary patron and catechumen or recent convert, representative of a cultivated Greco-Roman readership, a Christian of Gentile origin.
Place of composition
Probably Achaia or Asia Minor; tradition mentions Antioch, Boeotia, or Rome. The question remains open.
Occasion / context
To offer Theophilus and the Greco-Roman communities a careful historical narrative grounding the Christian faith in the history of salvation, from the annunciation to the expansion of the Church.
Original language
Literary Koine Greek of high quality, the finest of the New Testament. A polished style, a rich vocabulary, complex periods. Imitation of the Septuagint in the infancy narratives.
Place in the canon
Universally received from the 2nd century. Marcion (c. 140) had made it his only gospel (in an expurgated form). Tertullian and Irenaeus defend the canonical Luke against Marcion. Present in the Muratorian canon (c. 170).
Authenticity and authorship criticism
The attribution to Luke, companion of Paul, is attested by Irenaeus (Adversus Haereses III, 1, 1, c. 180), the Muratorian canon (c. 170), Tertullian (Against Marcion IV, 2, c. 207), and the anti-Marcionite prologue (c. 170-180). This tradition is more convergent and earlier than for the other gospels.
Arguments in favour of Lukan authenticity. (1) The "we-sections" of Acts (Acts 16:10-17; 20:5-15; 21:1-18; 27:1 – 28:16) suggest a companion of Paul. (2) The medical vocabulary identified by Hobart (The Medical Language of St. Luke, 1882) is compatible with the identification as the "beloved physician" of Col 4:14, without being conclusive (vocabulary shared with non-medical literature). (3) The literary quality of Greek and the historical culture are compatible with an educated Greco-Roman physician. (4) The prologue Lk 1:1-4 manifests a conscious historiographical method, conforming to Hellenistic norms.
Difficulties. (1) Luke sometimes presents Pauline theology in an attenuated or different form (justification, christology, eschatology), which has led some critics (Vielhauer, Conzelmann) to postulate a less direct dependence on Paul. (2) The Lukan "history of salvation" with its three times (Israel, Jesus, Church) is more structured than any explicit Pauline theology. (3) The knowledge of the destruction of Jerusalem places the composition clearly after 70, which makes the author elderly if he accompanied Paul in the 50s.
Integrative hypothesis. Luke, an occasional companion of Paul and then an independent witness, composed his work in the years 75-85, on the basis of his own notes (a travel journal), of Mark, of the source Q, and of particular sources (his own material designated L). His theology reflects a synthetic reception of the Pauline, Markan, and Jewish-Christian traditions, within a Greco-Roman framework.
The question of the two-volume work. Luke-Acts constitutes a single work in two volumes. This literary unity is today consensual, founded on the double prologue, the unity of vocabulary, and the coherent historical-theological framework. Henry Cadbury (The Making of Luke-Acts, 1927) established this methodological unity. Hans Conzelmann (Die Mitte der Zeit, 1954) held that Luke structures history into three times: the time of Israel (up to John the Baptist), the time of Jesus (the centre), the time of the Church (since the Ascension), a thesis long influential though qualified since.
Literary structure
Literary prologue(Lk 1:1-4)
Dedicatory preface to Theophilus according to Hellenistic historiographical conventions. Method: inquiry, cross-checking of sources, order, certainty (ἀσφάλεια).
Infancy narratives(Lk 1:5 – 2:52)
Announcements to Zechariah (1:5-25) and to Mary (1:26-38), visitation (1:39-56) with the Magnificat (1:46-55), birth of John the Baptist (1:57-80) with the Benedictus (1:68-79), birth of Jesus (2:1-20), circumcision and presentation (2:21-40) with the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32), Jesus at the age of 12 in the Temple (2:41-52). Three major canticles incorporated into the liturgy.
Preparation of the ministry(Lk 3:1 – 4:13)
Precise chronological framework (3:1-2), preaching of John the Baptist (3:3-20), baptism of Jesus (3:21-22), genealogy traced back to Adam (3:23-38), temptations in the wilderness (4:1-13).
Ministry in Galilee(Lk 4:14 – 9:50)
Nazareth manifesto (4:16-30, citation of Is 61), preaching and miracles (4:31 – 5:11), call of the disciples, controversies with the Pharisees (5:17 – 6:11), choice of the Twelve and the Sermon on the Plain (6:12-49), the centurion (7:1-10), raising of the son of the widow of Nain (7:11-17), the sinful woman (7:36-50), women accompanying Jesus (8:1-3), parables (8:4-21), Galilean miracles (8:22-56), sending of the Twelve (9:1-6), Herod (9:7-9), feeding of the multitude (9:10-17), Peter's confession (9:18-22), transfiguration (9:28-36).
Ascent to Jerusalem (the travel narrative)(Lk 9:51 – 19:27)
A section unique to Luke, 10 chapters organised around the ascent to Jerusalem. Sending of the 72 (10:1-24), the good Samaritan (10:25-37), Martha and Mary (10:38-42), teaching on prayer (11:1-13), controversies over Beelzebul (11:14-36), invectives (11:37-54), teachings on providence (12:1-34), vigilance (12:35-48), divisions (12:49-59), conversion (13:1-9), sabbath healing (13:10-17), parables of the Kingdom (13:18-21), the narrow door (13:22-30), Jerusalem (13:31-35), the Pharisee (14:1-24), conditions of discipleship (14:25-35), three parables of mercy (15:1-32: the lost sheep, the lost coin, the prodigal son), the dishonest steward (16:1-13), the rich man and Lazarus (16:19-31), various teachings (17:1-19), the coming of the Son of Man (17:20-37), the Pharisee and the tax collector (18:9-14), the rich ruler (18:18-30), third passion prediction (18:31-34), the blind man of Jericho (18:35-43), Zacchaeus (19:1-10), parable of the minas (19:11-27).
Ministry in Jerusalem(Lk 19:28 – 21:38)
Messianic entry (19:28-44), cleansing of the Temple (19:45-48), controversies (20:1-44), the poor widow (21:1-4), eschatological discourse (21:5-38).
Passion(Lk 22:1 – 23:56)
Plot and betrayal (22:1-6), the Last Supper (22:7-23) with the distinctive eucharistic institution (22:19-20), disputes about greatness and the warning to Peter (22:24-38), Gethsemane with the sweat of blood (22:39-46), arrest (22:47-53), denial (22:54-62), trial (22:63 – 23:25, including Herod), crucifixion with sayings proper to Luke: "Father, forgive them" (23:34), the good thief (23:39-43), "Father, into your hands I commend my spirit" (23:46), death and burial (23:47-56).
Resurrection and ascension(Lk 24:1-53)
The empty tomb and appearance to the women (24:1-12), the disciples at Emmaus (24:13-35, a narrative proper to Luke), appearance at Jerusalem (24:36-43), missionary sending (24:44-49), ascension at Bethany (24:50-53).
Principal theology
Universal salvation and preference for the marginalised
Luke is the gospel of universal salvation and of preference for the marginalised. The genealogy is traced back to Adam (Lk 3:38), not only to Abraham, signalling the universal scope. Simeon proclaims Jesus "a light for revelation to the nations and the glory of Israel" (Lk 2:32, citing Is 49:6). The Nazareth manifesto (Lk 4:16-30) cites Is 61: "The Spirit of the Lord is upon me to bring good news to the poor," and provokes fury when Jesus mentions the widow of Zarephath and Naaman the Syrian. The good Samaritan (Lk 10:25-37) makes the despised foreigner the model of charity. Zacchaeus the tax collector (Lk 19:1-10), the Pharisee and the tax collector (Lk 18:9-14), and the good thief (Lk 23:39-43) show salvation offered to the unworthy.
Women occupy an exceptional place: Mary and Elizabeth (Lk 1), Anna the prophetess (Lk 2:36-38), the widow of Nain (Lk 7:11-17), the forgiven sinful woman (Lk 7:36-50), the female disciples (Lk 8:1-3) — Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Susanna, and several others "who provided for them out of their means" —, Martha and Mary (Lk 10:38-42), the daughters of Jerusalem (Lk 23:27-31), the witnesses of the resurrection (Lk 24:1-11). This feminine presence is unmatched in the gospels.
The poor receive a blessing without spiritual qualification (Lk 6:20, "Blessed are you who are poor," without "in spirit" as in Mt 5:3). The corresponding woes against the rich (Lk 6:24-26) are proper to Luke. Mary sings: "He has cast down the mighty from their thrones and lifted up the lowly; he has filled the hungry with good things and sent the rich away empty" (Lk 1:52-53, Magnificat). The prodigal son (Lk 15:11-32), the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:19-31), the warning against avarice (Lk 12:13-21), and the rich ruler (Lk 18:18-30) take up the use of riches as a theme. This socio-economic dimension makes Luke the favoured text of the liberation theologies.
The Holy Spirit and prayer
Luke grants the Holy Spirit (πνεῦμα ἅγιον, pneuma hagion) a place without equal in the gospels. The Spirit guides the whole saving action: he fills Elizabeth, Zechariah, Simeon (Lk 1:41,67; 2:25-27); he accompanies the conception of Jesus (Lk 1:35); he descends visibly at the baptism (Lk 3:22); he leads Jesus into the wilderness and then into Galilee (Lk 4:1,14); he inhabits his ministry (Lk 4:18, citing Is 61); he is the promised gift of the Father (Lk 11:13); he forgives or condemns (Lk 12:10); he will be given to the disciples at the time of their persecutions (Lk 12:12); he is the gift promised by the Father and sent from on high (Lk 24:49), a promise realised at Pentecost (Acts 2). Luke-Acts has been called the "Gospel of the Spirit" by several authors.
Prayer (προσευχή, proseuchē) is just as characteristic. Jesus prays at the decisive moments: baptism (Lk 3:21), choice of the Twelve (Lk 6:12, all night), Peter's confession and the transfiguration (Lk 9:18,28-29), teaching of the Lord's Prayer (Lk 11:1), Gethsemane (Lk 22:41-44), the cross (Lk 23:34,46). Luke alone transmits the specific parables on prayer: the importunate friend (Lk 11:5-8), the unjust judge (Lk 18:1-8), the Pharisee and the tax collector (Lk 18:9-14). Three liturgical canticles (Magnificat, Benedictus, Nunc Dimittis) have structured monastic and Anglican prayer (Vespers, Lauds, Compline). This spirituality of prayer has profoundly marked the Western spiritual tradition (Bernard, Francis, Ignatius, Teresa, Francis de Sales).
History of salvation and ecclesiology
Luke structures the history of salvation into several times. Hans Conzelmann (Die Mitte der Zeit, 1954, translated into English as The Theology of St Luke) proposed a tripartite structure: the time of Israel (up to John the Baptist, Lk 16:16), the time of Jesus (the centre of history), the time of the Church (from the Ascension to the glorious return). This structure has been criticised and qualified: the boundaries are not watertight (John the Baptist already belongs to the new time; the Spirit is already at work in the OT), and the ascension is not an absolute rupture (the living Christ acts in the Church through the Spirit).
Lukan ecclesiology unfolds fully in Acts: Pentecostal birth (Acts 2), concentric expansion (Jerusalem, Judea and Samaria, the ends of the earth, Acts 1:8), ministerial structures (apostles, the Seven, elders, bishops-presbyters), councils (Jerusalem, Acts 15), discipline. The gospel prefigures: the sending of the Twelve (Lk 9), the sending of the 72 (Lk 10) prefiguring the mission to the nations, the eucharist as a communal rite (Lk 22:19 "do this in remembrance of me," proper to Luke and Paul).
Lukan eschatology is tempered. Where Mark appears imminentist (Mk 13:30 "this generation will not pass away"), Luke attenuates: the Kingdom is already in your midst (Lk 17:21), the return is deferred (Lk 19:11; 21:9 "no, the end is not yet"), time is needed for the worldwide mission (Lk 21:24 "the times of the nations"). This inaugurated eschatology allows an ecclesiology for the long term, open to universal expansion. It is the gospel par excellence of a Church settling into history.
Major theological disputes
The following disputes draw on the six great confessional voices (Catholic, Orthodox, Reformed, Lutheran, Anglican, Anabaptist), with interjections from Professor Tryphon Goldberg, the site's Jewish pedagogical persona.
Eucharist: Lk 22:19-20 and the shorter text
The Lukan account of the eucharistic institution (Lk 22:19-20) presents a famous textual peculiarity: certain ancient manuscripts (notably Codex Bezae D and several Old Latin witnesses) omit the second mention of the cup and give a shorter form. The issue: what is the authentic text, and what is Luke's eucharistic doctrine?
Catholic
The long text (Lk 22:19-20) is authentic, attested by P75, B, א, A, C, and the majority of the ancient manuscripts. It contains the eucharistic institution with a cup before and after the bread (a special form), or more probably takes up the ritual sequence: a cup of thanksgiving (22:17), the bread "this is my body given for you, do this in remembrance of me" (22:19), a cup after the meal "this cup is the new covenant in my blood poured out for you" (22:20). The eucharist is the sacrament of the new covenant, a sacrifice made present, the real presence of the body and blood of Christ. Transubstantiation (Lateran IV, 1215; Trent, 1551) philosophically renders (in Aristotelian categories) what faith confesses: under the species of the bread and the wine, the whole Christ is really, substantially, and sacramentally present.
Orthodox
The eucharist is the mystery (μυστήριον, mystērion) of the body and blood of Christ, a real transformation (μεταβολή) through the epiclesis of the Holy Spirit. Orthodox theology refuses the scholastic categories of transubstantiation: the transformation is confessed without being philosophised. The eucharist is sacrifice — not repetition but actualisation — and communion in the divine life (κοινωνία). The eucharistic liturgy (of John Chrysostom or Basil) places the epiclesis after the words of institution, signalling that it is the Spirit who consecrates. The leavened bread manifests the risen Christ; the wine mingled with water symbolises the union of divinity and humanity.
Reformed
Lk 22:19-20 grounds the eucharist as a sacrament instituted by Christ. Calvin (Institutes IV, 17) defends a real spiritual presence of Christ through the Holy Spirit: the communicant believer is raised spiritually to heaven where the risen Christ resides bodily (in his glorious abode), so as to participate truly in his body and blood without bodily ubiquity. This position opposes Catholic transubstantiation (which he judges superstitious, degrading the mystery into a material localisation), Lutheran consubstantiation (which he judges philosophically unstable), and Zwinglian memorialism (which he judges insufficient because it reduces the sacrament to a mere remembrance). The Consensus Tigurinus (1549) between Calvin and Bullinger establishes a common Reformed position.
Lutheran
Lk 22:19 "this is my body" must be taken in its proper sense (est = truly is). Luther maintained against Zwingli (Colloquy of Marburg, 1529) the real bodily presence of Christ in, cum et sub (in, with, and under) the species of the bread and the wine. The term "consubstantiation" (used by later theologians) is inexact: Luther speaks of sacramental union. The body of Christ is present by bodily ubiquity (by reason of the communication of idioms). The Formula of Concord (1577, art. 7) specifies: what is eaten sacramentally by the unworthy (oral manducation) is the true body of Christ, to their condemnation if they do not discern it. This position grounds a realist sacramental eucharist without Aristotelian transubstantiation.
Anglican
Article 28 of the Thirty-Nine Articles rejects transubstantiation as "repugnant to the plain words of Scripture" and confesses a "true" presence of the body of Christ given and received "after a heavenly and spiritual manner." This Calvinist-receptionist formulation was qualified by the Oxford Movement (Tractarians, 19th century), which reintroduced a high-church reading close to the objective real presence. The Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC, Final Report, 1981) produced an agreement on the eucharist acknowledging the real presence and the sacrificial character, without imposing transubstantiation. The internal Anglican diversity remains strong.
Anabaptist
Lk 22:19 institutes a communal memorial meal ("do this in remembrance of me," εἰς τὴν ἐμὴν ἀνάμνησιν). The eucharist is principally a commemorative ordinance, a sign of communal commitment, celebrated by the assembly of believers. The Schleitheim Confession (1527, art. 3) links the supper to prior fraternal unity. Positions vary: some Anabaptists (contemporary Mennonites) acknowledge a dimension of spiritual communion beyond mere memorial. The bread and the wine remain symbols (following Zwingli on this point): Christ is not locally present in the elements, but the community participates in his body and blood through faith and mutual commitment.
Synthesis
The textual question first: the long text (Lk 22:19-20 complete) is today considered authentic by almost all textual criticism (Aland, Metzger, Nestle-Aland 28). The short text of D and a few Old Latin witnesses represents a secondary harmonisation with Mark-Matthew. The eucharistic dispute turns on four axes: (1) the nature of the presence (real substantial / real spiritual / memorialist); (2) the sacrificial character; (3) the validly consecrating minister; (4) admission to communion. The Lima BEM Declaration (1982, Faith and Order, WCC) laid ecumenical foundations. The Lutheran-Catholic agreements on justification (JDDJ 1999) and the Catholic-Orthodox ones (Ravenna 2007, Chieti 2016) are progressing. Eucharistic sharing remains largely impeded between Catholics and Protestants by the question of the ministerial priesthood and of the real presence. The Arnoldshain Agreement (1957) and the Leuenberg Concord (1973) made eucharistic communion possible between Lutherans, Reformed, and united churches in Europe. The Anglican-Old Catholic (Bonn 1931) and Anglican-Lutheran communions (Porvoo 1992, Reuilly 1999) recognise a common eucharist. The debate over Lk 22:19-20 illustrates the permanent difficulty of the eucharistic dialogue.
Evangelical poverty and wealth: the beatitudes of Lk 6 and the parable of Lazarus
Lk 6:20-26 states four beatitudes (blessed are the poor, the hungry, those who weep, the persecuted) and four symmetrical woes (woe to you who are rich, who are full, who laugh, who are praised). The parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Lk 16:19-31) prolongs this dualism. The issue: how is this socio-ethical radicality to be articulated with ordinary Christian life?
Catholic
The preferential option for the poor is an essential dimension of the social teaching of the Church. Vatican II (Gaudium et Spes, 1965, §1) opens with the "joys and hopes, the griefs and anxieties of the people of this age, especially those who are poor and all who suffer." Catholic social doctrine (Rerum Novarum, 1891, Leo XIII; Populorum Progressio, 1967, Paul VI; Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, 1987, John Paul II; Caritas in Veritate, 2009, Benedict XVI; Laudato Si', 2015; Fratelli Tutti, 2020, Francis) develops a critique of dehumanising capitalism and of materialist Marxism, in favour of the common good, the universal destination of goods, and subsidiarity. The conferences of Medellín (CELAM 1968) and Puebla (1979) articulated the preferential option. The liberation theologies (Gustavo Gutiérrez, Leonardo Boff, Jon Sobrino) issued from this social reading of Luke and the prophets. Tensions with Rome were numerous (Libertatis Nuntius, CDF 1984; Libertatis Conscientia, 1986), today largely eased under the pontificate of Francis.
Orthodox
Evangelical poverty is radically lived in monasticism (Athos, Russian, Coptic, Ethiopian communities), a living tradition since the 4th century. For the laity, almsgiving (ἐλεημοσύνη, eleēmosynē) and hospitality (φιλοξενία, philoxenia) are central obligations. John Chrysostom preached against wealth with prophetic vehemence (Homilies on Lazarus). Modern Orthodox theology (Sergei Bulgakov, Olivier Clément, Christos Yannaras) develops a critique of capitalism from patristic and liturgical resources. The Russian Church under Patriarch Kirill has sometimes been criticised for its alignment with Russian economic and political power, a tension with the evangelical teaching.
Reformed
Calvin articulated a theology of honest work, of moderation, and of the responsibility of the rich towards the poor. Historical Calvinism developed a work ethic which, according to Max Weber (The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, 1905), is held to have contributed to the emergence of modern capitalism. This thesis has been qualified (R. H. Tawney, Kurt Samuelsson). The contemporary Reformed tradition — Karl Barth, the Confessing movement (Barmen 1934 against Nazi idolatry), Jürgen Moltmann, Jean-Marc Aveline — has criticised unjust economic structures. The World Alliance of Reformed Churches (which became the World Communion of Reformed Churches in 2010) adopted in 2004 the Accra Confession rejecting neoliberal capitalism as idolatry. A real tension between spiritual individualism and social critique.
Lutheran
Luther distinguished civil righteousness (temporal government, economic responsibilities according to one's vocation) and evangelical righteousness (sola gratia, sola fide). The Christian lives in the two governments simultaneously. Luther criticised the usury of the Fuggers and the nascent capitalist commerce (Sermon on Trade and Usury, 1524; On Trading and Usury, 1524), but his critique was historically less durable than that of Calvinism. Contemporary Lutheran theology — Wolfhart Pannenberg, Robert Jenson, and notably the Lutheran World Federation — has articulated a critique of unjust economic globalisation. The declaration A Call to Love, Solidarity, and Justice (Stuttgart 2010) prolongs this commitment.
Anglican
Frederick Maurice and the Christian Socialist movement (1848) articulated a social reading of the Sermon and of the Lukan beatitudes. William Temple, Archbishop of Canterbury (1942-1944), published Christianity and Social Order (1942), a founding text of the British welfare state. The cooperative movement, the Victorian social reforms, and the anti-slavery commitment (William Wilberforce) bear witness to a social praxis issuing from the evangelical reading. Faith in the City (Church of England, 1985) criticised Thatcherism and urban poverty. Contemporary Anglican bishops (Rowan Williams, Justin Welby) intervene regularly in public debate.
Anabaptist
The Anabaptists have historically lived a communal evangelical poverty. The Hutterites practise the community of goods (Acts 4:32-35; Lk 12:33) since Jakob Hutter in the 16th century. The Mennonites and Amish live a radical economic simplicity, rejecting consumption and comfort. The Lukan beatitudes are taken literally: an effective woe on the rich, an effective blessing on the poor. John Howard Yoder (The Politics of Jesus, 1972) articulated an Anabaptist economic ethics in which the jubilee Kingdom (Lk 4:18-19) is a concrete programme. Organisations such as the Mennonite Central Committee and Mennonite Disaster Service embody this commitment.
Synthesis
The Lukan beatitudes pose a hermeneutical problem: are they literal (the economically poor are blessed; the economically rich are cursed) or spiritual (the poor in spirit as in Matthew)? The Mt/Lk contrast suggests two traditions of transmission: Matthew spiritualises ("blessed are the poor in spirit"), Luke maintains the socio-economic radicality. The majority of critics consider that Luke preserves an earlier form, close to the historical sayings of Jesus in the Galilean context of peasants dispossessed by Roman and Herodian taxation. The parable of Lazarus (Lk 16:19-31) is explicit: the rich man is in hell for having neglected Lazarus, with no specific sin mentioned other than indifference to the misery at his door. The eschatological reversal of the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), of the beatitudes (Lk 6:20-26), of Lazarus (Lk 16:19-31), of the last judgement (Mt 25:31-46) is constitutive of evangelical ethics. The Latin American liberation theologies (Gutiérrez, A Theology of Liberation, 1971; Boff, Church: Charism and Power, 1981; Sobrino, Christology at the Crossroads, 1976), African (Jean-Marc Éla), Asian (Aloysius Pieris), Black American (James Cone), feminist (Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza), queer, and ecological ones have radicalised this reading by articulating it with economic, racial, sexual, and ecological structures. The debate over the methodological legitimacy of the Marxist use in theology set Rome (Ratzinger, Libertatis Nuntius) against the liberation theologians, a debate today largely eased. Pope Francis, the first Jesuit and Latin American pontiff, reintegrated many liberationist themes into the ordinary magisterium (Evangelii Gaudium, 2013; Laudato Si', 2015; Fratelli Tutti, 2020).
Mary: the Magnificat, perpetual virginity, and theological place
Luke presents Mary as a central figure: annunciation (Lk 1:26-38), Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), Nativity (Lk 2:1-20), presentation in the Temple (Lk 2:21-40), Jesus at the age of 12 (Lk 2:41-52), Cana (Jn 2, but in the background). The issue: what theological place is to be recognised for Mary?
Catholic
Mary is Theotokos (Mother of God, defined at Ephesus 431), Aeiparthenos (ever-virgin, Constantinople II 553), of the Immaculate Conception (Pius IX, Ineffabilis Deus, 1854), assumed body and soul into heaven (Pius XII, Munificentissimus Deus, 1950). Her cooperation in the redemption (the fiat of Lk 1:38) makes her the new Eve (Irenaeus, Justin). She is the mediatrix of all graces according to Marian piety, without impairing the unique mediation of Christ (1 Tim 2:5). Lumen Gentium (1964, chapter 8) integrated mariology into ecclesiology, presenting Mary as a "pre-eminent and altogether singular member of the Church," type and model of the Church. The recognised apparitions (Lourdes 1858, Fatima 1917) prolong Marian piety. The Rosary (Leo XIII, Marian encyclicals) is a major form of Catholic prayer.
Orthodox
The East confesses Theotokos (Ephesus 431) and perpetual virginity (ante partum, in partu, post partum), but refuses the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption as defined dogmas. The East speaks of the Dormition of the Mother of God (15 August) and of her bodily glorification in the liturgical tradition, without a defined dogma. Mary is central in the liturgy (numerous akathists), in iconography (Hodegetria, Eleousa, Platytera), and in piety. The refusal of the Immaculate Conception holds to a different understanding of original sin: for the East, original sin is not an inherited personal fault but transmitted mortal consequences; Mary, like all humanity, is under these consequences but preserved by grace without need of a conceptional privilege.
Reformed
Calvin honours Mary as the servant of the Lord and mother of Christ, and accepts the perpetual virginity, but rejects Marian intercession, the hyperdulic cult (pre-eminent veneration), and the medieval devotional developments. The Magnificat is commented on positively as a prophetic prayer. The Westminster Standards (1646-1649) and the La Rochelle Confession (1559) refuse all saving mediation other than that of the one Christ. Contemporary Reformed theology dialogues with Catholic mariology: Mary in the Plan of God and in the Communion of Saints (Groupe des Dombes, 1997-1998) proposes a convergence, without imposing acceptance of the Marian dogmas. Karl Barth wrote a famous critique of Catholic mariology (Church Dogmatics, I/2, §15) while recognising the centrality of Mary as Theotokos.
Lutheran
Luther maintained a traditional mariology: perpetual virginity, Mother of God, Immaculate Conception (in certain writings, an evolving position), a famous commentary on the Magnificat (1521) as a school of grace. The Augsburg Confession (1530) mentions Mary as "the most worthy Mother of God, ever-virgin." Contemporary Lutheranism has often lost this Marian piety, judged too Catholic; but recent declarations (The One Mediator, the Saints, and Mary, US Lutheran-Catholic Commission, 1992; Christ and His Body: Mary and the Saints, Anglican-Lutheran Commission) rehabilitate her as a figure of obedience, faith, and grace.
Anglican
Article 22 of the Thirty-Nine Articles rejects the Roman doctrine on the invocation of saints as "a fond thing vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the Word of God." The Book of Common Prayer (1662) mentions Mary with respect (the Magnificat at Evensong) but without cult. The Oxford Movement (19th century) reintroduced a high-church mariology, close to Catholicism and Orthodoxy. ARCIC produced Mary: Grace and Hope in Christ (2004, the Seattle document), recognising the centrality of Mary without imposing the recent Marian dogmas on Anglicans. Internal diversity: Anglo-Catholics (strong mariology), evangelicals (reserved), liberals (a symbolic reading).
Anabaptist
Mary is respected as the servant of the Lord and mother of the Saviour, but no particular Marian piety has developed among the Anabaptists. The Schleitheim Confession (1527) does not mention Mary. The perpetual virginity is generally neither affirmed nor denied, judged non-essential. No Marian feast in the Anabaptist calendar. The intercession of the saints is rejected. Mary is a figure of obedience and faith, without a role of saving mediation. This mariological sobriety reflects the more general rejection of non-scriptural ecclesiological and devotional developments.
Synthesis
The development of mariology is one of the most disputed trajectories among the Christian traditions. (1) Lukan bases: Mary is the servant (δούλη, doulē) of the Lord (Lk 1:38), a prophetess (Magnificat, Lk 1:46-55), one who ponders (Lk 2:19,51), a figure of obedience and of hearing the Word (Lk 11:27-28). (2) Dogmatic development: Theotokos (Ephesus 431) is a historical Christian consensus; perpetual virginity is an ancient consensus (before the Reformation, accepted by Luther, Calvin, Wesley), but contested by some contemporary Protestants; the Immaculate Conception (1854) and the Assumption (1950) divide. (3) Piety: invocation, intercession, the rosary, apparitions, and devotions are Catholic-Orthodox, refused by the majority of Protestants. The Groupe des Dombes (Catholics-Protestants, France) produced Mary in the Plan of God and in the Communion of Saints (1997-1998), a convergent document recognising the centrality of Mary without imposing the recent dogmas on Protestants. ARCIC's Mary: Grace and Hope (Seattle 2004) proposes an Anglican-Catholic convergence. Lumen Gentium chapter 8 (1964) recentred Catholic mariology on ecclesiology and on Christ. The Magnificat remains the Marian prayer common to all the traditions, the sign of a possible convergence around the biblical Mary.
Historical reception
Patristic reception (2nd-5th c.)
The Gospel of Luke played a central role in patristic literature on account of its literary quality and its universalism. Marcion (c. 140) had made it his only gospel, in a version expurgated of references to the Old Testament. Irenaeus (Adversus Haereses III, 1, 1; III, 11, 7-9, c. 180) defends the canonical Luke against Marcion and establishes the authority of the four gospels on the model of the four living creatures of Ezek 1 and Rev 4.
Origen (185-254) commented on Luke in 39 Greek homilies (partially lost, translated into Latin by Jerome) and fragments of a systematic commentary. In them he develops a rich spiritual exegesis, integrating Mary as a figure of the Church. Ambrose of Milan (c. 340-397) composed an Expositio Evangelii secundum Lucam in ten books, monumental, which profoundly influenced Augustine. Augustine himself commented little directly on Luke but cites the gospel constantly.
John Chrysostom (c. 347-407) left no systematic homilies on Luke (his cycles bear on Matthew, John, Acts, Romans, 1-2 Corinthians, etc.), but his Homilies on Lazarus (seven homilies on Lk 16:19-31) are a summit of patristic social preaching, denouncing indifferent wealth. Cyril of Alexandria (c. 376-444) composed a commentary on Luke (largely preserved in Syriac) defending the christology of Ephesus.
Medieval reception
In the Western Middle Ages, Luke is the gospel of Mary, of piety, and of the moral parables. Bede the Venerable (c. 673-735) composed an In Lucae Evangelium Expositio in six books, integrating the Latin patristic tradition. This work served as a reference for the Glossa ordinaria of the 12th century.
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) comments on Luke in the Catena Aurea, a chain of patristic extracts on the gospels. Albert the Great composed a massive commentary. Medieval moral theology draws abundantly on Luke: the good Samaritan (charity), the prodigal son (penance), the Pharisee and the tax collector (humility), the rich man and Lazarus (wealth), Mary and Martha (the active and contemplative life).
Franciscan spirituality (Francis of Assisi, 1181-1226) draws on Lk 9:3 ("take nothing for the journey") and on evangelical poverty. The Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine (c. 1260) deploys the Lukan narrative material in popular piety. Renaissance paintings multiply annunciations, visitations, nativities, presentations in the Temple, and flights into Egypt, which are almost all Lukan.
Byzantine reception
The East favoured Luke for mariology and the liturgy. The Marian feasts (Annunciation 25 March, Presentation in the Temple 21 November, Dormition 15 August, Nativity of Mary 8 September) find their principal scriptural basis in Luke 1-2 and in the Protevangelia. The Byzantine Marian akathists (an anthology of Marian hymns) constantly take up the Lukan words: Magnificat, the words of the angel, the words of Simeon, etc.
Theophylact of Ohrid (c. 1055-1107) included Luke in his commentary on the four gospels. Euthymios Zigabenos (12th century) continued this tradition. Orthodox Marian piety (the Vladimir icon, Hodegetria, Eleousa) deploys the Lukan figure of Mary.
The Athonite tradition, from Maximus the Confessor to Gregory Palamas and beyond, read Luke for its christological universalism and its spirituality of prayer. The Way of a Pilgrim (19th century), a hesychast legacy applying the continuous Jesus Prayer, draws notably on Lk 18:1-8 (the unjust judge) and 18:9-14 (the Pharisee and the tax collector).
Reformation reception
Luther preached Luke regularly, particularly the liturgical pericopes. His commentary on the Magnificat (Das Magnificat verdeutscht und ausgelegt, 1521), composed during his stay at the Wartburg, is one of his major spiritual texts. In it he presents Mary as a school of grace, a model of the simul iustus et peccator who receives everything from the Lord.
Calvin commented on Luke in his Harmony of the Three Evangelists (1555), an integrated commentary on the three synoptics. His reading of the good Samaritan (Lk 10:25-37) refuses the Augustinian allegorism (Samaritan = Christ; innkeeper = Church; etc.) in favour of a direct ethical reading: concrete charity towards every neighbour in need.
The Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (Lk 1:68-79), and the Nunc Dimittis (Lk 2:29-32) were incorporated into Protestant liturgy. Anglicans sing them daily at Evensong and Matins (Book of Common Prayer, 1549, 1662). Calvinists use them in the ordinary liturgy. The German Pietist tradition (Spener, Francke, Zinzendorf in the 17th-18th centuries) developed a moderate Reformed Marian spirituality from Luke.
Modern reception (19th-21st c.)
Modern criticism made Luke a laboratory for historiographical study. Hans Conzelmann (Die Mitte der Zeit, 1954) established the Lukan theology of the history of salvation. Henry Cadbury (The Making of Luke-Acts, 1927) established the literary unity of Luke-Acts. Joseph Fitzmyer (The Gospel According to Luke, AB, 2 vols., 1981-1985) and François Bovon (L'Évangile selon saint Luc, CNT, 4 vols., 1991-2009) are the monumental contemporary commentaries.
Latin American liberation theology (Gutiérrez, Boff, Sobrino) took Luke as its central text: the Nazareth manifesto (Lk 4:16-30), the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the beatitudes and woes (Lk 6:20-26), the good Samaritan (Lk 10:25-37), the prodigal son (Lk 15:11-32), Lazarus (Lk 16:19-31), Zacchaeus (Lk 19:1-10). Carlos Mesters and the base ecclesial communities popularised a liberationist reading.
Feminist exegesis (Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, In Memory of Her, 1983; Barbara Reid, Choosing the Better Part?: Women in the Gospel of Luke, 1996) reread Luke, discerning in it a twofold tension: an unprecedented presence of women, and a tendency to marginalise them in silent or domestic roles. The debate over the Lukan "ambiguity" towards women remains lively.
Contemporary exegesis integrates the narratological contributions (Robert Tannehill, The Narrative Unity of Luke-Acts, 2 vols., 1986-1990), the rhetorical (Vernon Robbins), the sociological (John Elliott), and the postcolonial. The post-Shoah Jewish-Christian dialogue reread the problematic passages (the rejection of Israel in Acts 28:25-28) from a non-supersessionist perspective.
Selected bibliography
References selected according to the conventions of the SBL Handbook of Style (2nd ed., 2014).
Bovon, François. L'Évangile selon saint Luc. 4 vol. Commentaire du Nouveau Testament 3a-d. Genève: Labor et Fides, 1991-2009.
Cadbury, Henry J. The Making of Luke-Acts. London: Macmillan, 1927.
Conzelmann, Hans. Die Mitte der Zeit: Studien zur Theologie des Lukas. Beiträge zur historischen Theologie 17. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1954.
Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Gospel According to Luke. 2 vol. Anchor Bible 28-28A. Garden City: Doubleday, 1981-1985.
Green, Joel B. The Gospel of Luke. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997.
Johnson, Luke Timothy. The Gospel of Luke. Sacra Pagina 3. Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1991.
Marshall, I. Howard. The Gospel of Luke: A Commentary on the Greek Text. New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978.
Menoud, Philippe-H. Jésus-Christ et la foi : recherches néotestamentaires. Bibliothèque théologique. Neuchâtel – Paris: Delachaux & Niestlé, 1975.
Nolland, John. Luke. 3 vol. Word Biblical Commentary 35A-C. Dallas: Word, 1989-1993.
Powell, Mark Allan. What Are They Saying About Luke? Mahwah: Paulist Press, 1989.
Radermakers, Jean. La Bonne Nouvelle de Jésus selon saint Luc. 2 vol. Bruxelles: Institut d'études théologiques, 1974.
Reid, Barbara E. Choosing the Better Part?: Women in the Gospel of Luke. Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1996.
Tannehill, Robert C. The Narrative Unity of Luke-Acts: A Literary Interpretation. 2 vol. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986-1990.
Wolter, Michael. The Gospel According to Luke. Traduit par Wayne Coppins et Christoph Heilig. 2 vol. Baylor-Mohr Siebeck Studies in Early Christianity. Waco: Baylor University Press, 2016-2017.
Carroll, John T. Luke: A Commentary. New Testament Library. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2012.
Edwards, James R. The Gospel According to Luke. Pillar New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015.
Marguerat, Daniel. Les Actes des Apôtres (1-12) et Les Actes des Apôtres (13-28). Commentaire du Nouveau Testament 5a-b. Genève: Labor et Fides, 2007-2015.